Jonathan Matusitz1 & Demi Simi2
1Nicholson School of Communication and Media at the University of Central Florida, USA
2Graduate from the Nicholson School of Communication and Media at the University of Central Florida, USA
Abstract: This paper examines the effects of ageism on older college faculty in U.S. higher education. Ageism is one of the most socially-accepted types of prejudice; it is a way of stereotyping and discriminating individuals exclusively based on their age group. Social closure theory is the theoretical framework used in this analysis. By and large, the theory rests on the premise that people in their own groups seek to make the most of benefits by limiting access and freedoms to out-group members. Also examined in this analysis are older college faculty from diverse groups: women, African Americans, Latinos, non-traditional graduates, and homosexuals. An important conclusion is that, although science has been viewed as a domain for the young, little evidence exists about the correlation between age and productivity among faculty in U.S. higher education. Therefore, engaging in social closure is not necessary at U.S. colleges and universities.
Keywords: Ageism, Diversity, Higher Education, Social Closure Theory, United States
Doi: 10.23918/ijsses.v10i3p254
Published: June 19, 2023
References:
Altbach, P. G. (1998). Comparative higher education: Knowledge, the university, and development. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing.
Arrowsmith, J., & McGoldrick, A. (1997). A flexible future for older workers? Personnel Review, 26, 258-273.
August, L., & Waltman, J. (2004). Culture, climate and contribution: Career satisfaction among female faculty. Research in Higher Education, 45(2), 177-192.
Austin, M., & Droussitis, A. (2004). Cypriot manager’s perceptions of older managers in Cyprus. European Business Review, 16(1), 80-92.
Bollag, B. (2007). Gay professors face less discrimination, but many still fight for benefits. The Chronicle of Higher Education, 54(5), p. B10.
Bozeman, D. P., & Kacmar, K. M. (1997). A cybernetic model of impression management processes in organizations. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 69(1), 9-30.
Brosi, G., & Kleiner, B. (1999). Is age a handicap in finding employment? Equal Employment International, 15(5), 100-104.
Burrage, M. C., & Rolf, T. (1990). Professions in theory and history: Rethinking the study of the professions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Butler, R. (1969). Ageism: another form of bigotry. The Gerontologist, 9, 243-246.
Butler, S. S. (2006). Older gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and transgender persons. In B. Berkman & S. D’Ambruoso (Eds.), Handbook of social work in health and aging (pp. 273-281). New York: Oxford University Press.
Chou, K. L., & Chow, N. (2005). To retire or not to retire: is there an option for older workers in Hong Kong. Social Policy and Administration, 39(3), 233-246.
Cole, S. (1979). Age and scientific performance. American Journal of Sociology, 84(4), 958-977.
Commission on Academic Tenure in Higher Education (1973). Faculty tenure: A report and recommendation by the
commission on academic tenure in higher education. San Francisco: Commission on Academic Tenure in Higher Education.
Cotter, D. A., Hermsen, J. M., Ovadia, S., & Vanneman, R. (2001). The glass ceiling effect. Social Forces, 80(2), 655-681.
Dean, L., Wu, S., & Martin, J. L. (1992). Trends in violence and discrimination against gay men in New York City: 1984 to 1990. In G. M. Herek & K. T. Berrill (Eds.), Hate crimes: Confronting violence against lesbians and gay men (pp. 46-64). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Delery, J. E., & Kacmar, K. M. (1998). The influence of applicant and interviewer characteristics on the use of impression management. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 28(18), 1649-1669.
Díaz, R. M., Ayala, G., Bein, E., Henne, J., & Marin, B. V. (2001). The impact of homophobia, poverty, and racism on the mental health of gay and bisexual Latino men: Findings from 3 US cities. American Journal of Public Health, 91(6), 927-932.
Dorfman, L. T. (2000). Still working after age 70: Older professors in academe. Educational Gerontology, 26(8), 695-713.
Dorfman, L. T. (2009). Ten years later: A follow-up study of professors still working after age 70. Educational Gerontology, 35(11), 1032-1045.
Duncan, C., & Loretto, W. (2004). Never the right age? Gender and age-based discrimination in employment. Gender, Work & Organization, 11(1), 95-115.
Ehrenberg, R. G. (1999). No longer forced out: How one institution is dealing with the end of mandatory retirement. Academe, 85(3), 34-39.
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (2006). Complaints: All statutes and ADEA. Washington, D.C.: Equal Employment Opportunity Commission.
Evans, A., & Chan, E. B. (2007). Are the walls really down? Behavioral and organizational barriers to faculty and staff diversity. Hoboken, NJ: Jossey-Bass.
Falk, G. (2001). Stigma: How we treat outsiders. New York: Prometheus Books.
Feistritzer, C. E., Griffin, S., & Linnajarvi, A. (2011). Profile of teachers in the US, 2011. Washington, D.C.: National Center for Education Information.
Fisher, J. C. (1993). A framework for describing developmental change among older adults. Adult Education Quarterly, 43(2), 76-89.
Fulton, R. D. (2000). The plight of part-timers in higher education: Some ruminations and suggestions. Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning, 32(3), 38-43.
Gandara, P. (2006). Strengthening the academic pipeline leading to careers in math, science, and technology for Latino students. Journal of Hispanic Higher Education, 5(3), 222-237.
Garstka, T., Hummert, M., & Branscombe, N. (2005). Perceiving age discrimination in response to intergenerational inequity. Journal of Social Issues, 61, 321-342.
Ghosheh Jr., N. S., Lee, S., & McCann, D. (2006). Conditions of work and employment for older workers in industrialized countries: Understanding the issues. Geneva: International Labour Office.
Giordano, S. (2005). Respect for equality and the treatment of the elderly: Declarations of human rights and age-based rationing. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics, 14(1), 83-92.
Gordon, R. A., & Arvey, R. D. (2004). Age bias in laboratory and field settings: A meta-analytic investigation. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 34(3), 468-492.
Griffin, B., & Hesketh, B. (2008). Post-retirement work: The individual determinants of paid and volunteer work. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 81(1), 101-121.
Gunderson, M. (2003). Age discrimination in employment in Canada. Contemporary Economic Policy, 21, 318-328.
Hoffer, T. B., & Welch, V. (2006). Time to degree of US research doctorate recipients. National Science Foundation, Directorate for Social, Behavioral, and Economic Sciences InfoBrief, 6(3), 1-8.
Jackson, J. F. L. (2001). A new test for diversity: Retaining African American administrators at predominantly White institutions. In L. Jones (Ed.), Retaining African Americans in higher education: Challenging paradigms for retaining black students, faculty, and administrators (pp. 93-109). Sterling, VA: Stylus.
Jackson, J. F. L., & Leon, R. A. (2010). Enlarging our understanding of glass ceiling effects with social closure theory in higher education. In J. C. Smart & M. B. Paulsen (Eds.), Higher education: Handbook of theory and research (pp. 351-379). New York: Springer.
Jacobs, R. J., Rasmussen, L. A., & Hohman, M. M. (1999). The social support needs of older lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services, 9(1), 1-30.
Jaschik, S. (2008). Bias against older candidates. Inside Higher Ed. Retrieved on February 9, 2015 at https://insidehighered.com/news/2008/12/17/age
Levin, S. G., & Stephan, P. E. (1989). Age and research productivity of academic scientists. Research in Higher Education, 30(5), 531-549.
Lewis, W. C. (1996). Retirement, wealth, income, and decision making in higher education. Journal of Higher Education, 67(1), 85-102.
Link, B. G., & Phelan, J. C. (2001). Conceptualizing stigma. Annual review of Sociology, 27, 363-385.
Marschke, R., Laursen, S., Nielsen, J. M., & Dunn-Rankin, P. (2007). Demographic inertia revisited: An immodest proposal to achieve equitable gender representation among faculty in higher education. The Journal of Higher Education, 78, 1-26.
Mather, M. (2006). Is there a U.S. shortage of scientists and engineers? It depends where you live.https://prb.org/Articles/2006/IsThereaUSShortageofScientistsandEngineersItDependsWhereYouLive.aspx
McDonald, F., & Potton, M. (1997). The nascent European policy towards older workers. Personnel Review, 26, 293-306.
McNaron, T. A. (1997). Poisoned ivy: Lesbian and gay academics confronting homophobia. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
Morphew, C. C., & Hartley, M. (2006). Mission statements: A thematic analysis of rhetoric across institutional type. Journal of Higher Education, 77(3), 456-471.
Murphy, R. (1988). Social closure: The theory of monopolization and exclusion. New York: Oxford University Press.
Neumark, D. (2003). Age discrimination legislation in the United States. Contemporary Economic Policy, 21, 217-317.
Perry, E. L., Kulik, C. T., & Bourhis, A. C. (1996). Moderating effects of personal and contextual factors in age discrimination. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81, 628-647.
Porter, S. R. (2007). A closer look at faculty service: What affects participation on committees? The Journal of Higher Education, 78(5), 523-541.
Rix, S. (2005). Update on the aged 55+ worker: 2005. Washington: AARP Public Policy Institute.
Rochin, R. I., & Mello, S. F. (2007). Latinos in science trends and opportunities. Journal of Hispanic Higher Education, 6(4), 305-355.
Roscigno, V. J., Mong, S., Byron, R., & Tester, G. (2007). Age discrimination, social closure and employment. Social Forces, 86(1), 313-334.
Sargeant, M. (2001). Lifelong learning and age discrimination in employment. Education and the Law, 13(2), 141-154.
Shen, G., & Kleiner, B. (2001). Age discrimination in hiring. Equal Opportunities International, 20(8), 25-32.
Stein, D., Rocco, T. S., & Goldenetz, K. A. (2000). Age and the university workplace: A case study of remaining, retiring, or returning older workers. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 11(1), 61-80.
Stroebe, W. (2010). The graying of academia: Will it reduce scientific productivity? American Psychologist, 65(7), 660-673.
Sugar, J. A., Pruitt, K., Anstee, J. L., & Harris, S. G. (2005). Academic administrators and faculty retirement in a new era. Educational Gerontology, 31(5), 405-418.
Tajfel, H. (1978). Differentiation between social groups. London: Academic Press.
Tajfel, H. (1981). Human groups and social categories: Studies in social psychology. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Thelin, J. R. (2004). A history of American higher education. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Tierney, W. G. (1997). Organizational socialization in higher education. The Journal of Higher Education, 68, 1-16.
Tomaskovic-Devey, D. (1993). Gender and racial inequality at work: The sources and consequences of job segregation. Ithaca, NY: ILR Press.
Tomaskovic-Devey, D., & Stainback, K. (2007). Discrimination and desegregation: Equal opportunity progress in U. S. private sector workplaces since the Civil Rights Act. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, 609(1), 49-84.
van Dam, K., van der Vorst, J. D. M., & van der Heijden, B. I. J. M. (2009). Employees’ intentions to retire early: A case of planned behavior and anticipated work conditions. Journal of Career Development, 35(3), 265-289.
Williams, B. N., & Williams, S. (2006). Perceptions of African American male junior faculty on promotion and tenure: Implications for community building and social capital. Teachers College Record, 108(2), 287-315.
Wilson, G. (2005). Race, ethnicity, and inequality in the American workplace: Evolving issues. American Behavioral Scientist, 48(9), 1151-1156.
Wood, G., Wilkinson, A., & Harcourt, M. (2008). Age discrimination and working life: Perspectives and contestations: A review of the contemporary literature. International Journal of Management Reviews, 10(4), 425-442.
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2011). Labor force statistics from the current population survey.
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
International Journal of Social Sciences & Educational Studies
ISSN 2520-0968 (Online), ISSN 2409-1294 (Print), June 2023, Vol.10, No.3